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Abstract
Background There has been a dramatic increase in liver disease over recent decades, with morbidity and mortality rates predicted to rise significantly. In order to effectively support this growing patient population we need to understand the experiences, key issues and priorities of people living and dying with advanced liver disease.
Aims To establish what is currently known about the patient experience of advanced liver disease.
Methods Scoping literature review. We searched MedLine, Web of Science, CINAHL and PsychINFO databases. Eligibility criteria: original research and review papers written in English since 1990 relating to the adult patient experience of advanced liver disease. Papers focusing on treatment development, acute liver failure or post liver transplantation were excluded.
Results 240 abstracts were identified and 121 articles reviewed in full. Patients with advanced liver disease experience many physical and psychosocial challenges, often of a greater severity than those reported in other advanced conditions. They are affected by gastrointestinal problems and fatigue, with both linked to higher levels of depression. Socio-demographic variations in the patient experience occur. Only two studies explored the holistic patient experience.
Conclusions Our knowledge of the patient experience in advanced liver disease is mainly from quality of life instruments and quantitative research. There are methodological limitations in the existing research such that the holistic patient experience is not well described. Qualitative longitudinal research has great potential for contributing to our understanding of the complex needs and experiences of patients living with advanced liver disease.
- Liver Diseases
- liver failure
- patient experience
- Quality of life
- palliative care
- Terminal care
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Introduction
There has been a dramatic increase in liver disease over recent decades, bucking the trend of falling mortality rates for most major diseases. For example, while UK-wide standard death rates for ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular diseases between 1970 and 2010 fell by 71% and 72%, respectively, death rates for chronic liver disease and cirrhosis rose by nearly 300%.1 In the UK, liver disease is currently the fifth most common cause of death2 and by 2030 more people may die from liver disease than heart disease.3 The average age of death from liver disease is 59, and in England more than one in 10 of deaths of people in their 40s are now attributable to the disease.4
The role and importance of psychosocial factors in the patient’s experience of having various illnesses have received increased attention over the last two decades. In light of the continued growth of this patient group, it is imperative that we understand the experiences and priorities of people living with advanced liver disease in relation to their illness beyond simply their medical care in order to ensure that they, and their family carers, are adequately cared for and their holistic needs met.5 ,6
We thus undertook a narrative scoping literature review to establish what is currently known about the patient experience in advanced liver disease.
Method
Design
This review was informed by the methodological framework of Arksey and O'Malley for scoping the literature.7 We chose this type of review to gain an overview of the breadth and extent of literature in a developing field.8 ,9
Search strategy
Literature searches were conducted in MedLine, Web of Science, CINAHL and PsychINFO databases. The search was conducted in an iterative manner, with search terms and strategy evolving as familiarity with the literature increased and key papers were identified. Searches were also adapted to suit the different formats of the individual databases.
Table 1 outlines the keywords and terms selected and searched for in abstracts.
Keywords and search terms
Results were supplemented through hand-searches of key journals, grey literature, internet resources, websites of key organisations, bibliographies and reference lists. Email alerts were set up for key journals. We also asked specialists in hepatology, palliative care, general practice and specific liver diseases to inform us of any work they knew of in this field.
Selecting articles for inclusion
Due to time and budget constraints we included only articles written in English since 1990 that related to the adult patient experience of advanced liver disease. The selection of articles was based on initial screening of titles for duplicates, relevance and false hits. Editorials or commentaries were excluded, as were papers where their main focus was on treatment development, acute liver failure or outcomes relating to the patient experience post liver transplantation. We did however retain qualitative studies exploring experiences post liver transplantation where findings also made reference to the patient experience prior to the intervention. We retained original research and review papers only.
Data extraction and analysis
Selected papers were summarised, grouped according to their key focus, for example, health-related quality of life (HRQOL), transplantation or psychological aspects of the disease, and charted using an Excel data sheet.
Results
A preliminary pool of 240 abstracts was identified and scrutinised for relevance and 121 articles were reviewed in full (figure 1).
Process and outcome of literature search.
The majority of papers was located in HRQOL research in general as well as relating to liver transplantation, and employed a variety of quantitative assessment instruments. Generic tools such as the Short Form SF-3 questionnaire and disease-specific tools such as the Chronic Liver Disease Questionnaire were used to assess physical and psychosocial factors.10
Qualitative studies were less common. Of the 13 papers identified, six focused on patients’ experiences of liver transplantation. The remainder pertained to specific types of liver disease, in particular primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC). Only one study employed a longitudinal design. Table 2 provides an overview of the qualitative studies retrieved. A more detailed consideration of the nature of the identified literature in general follows in the Discussion section.
Patient experience in advanced liver disease: qualitative studies (or studies containing a qualitative element) retrieved
The following sections outline the key findings in relation to patients’ experiences of living with advanced liver disease. In light of the large number of final papers reviewed it is not possible to report on each paper in this article. Findings are grouped into three broad areas: physical experience, psychological experience and socio-demographic variations.
The physical experience of advanced liver disease
Conducting HRQOL research with 575 patients with end-stage liver disease and/or their surrogate decision-makers, Roth et al found that these patients suffered substantial levels of pain, which compared with those reported by advanced cancer patients and exceeded those of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and chronic heart failure.11 Pain was particularly marked in cirrhotic patients with additional hepatocellular carcinoma.12 Due to the impact of patients’ liver damage on their ability to metabolise analgesics however, managing their pain proved challenging.13
Liver impairment also compromises the effective processing of nutrients. As such, malnutrition was found to be widespread among patients with advanced liver disease.14 Panagaria and colleagues compared the nutritional status of participants with alcoholic and non-alcoholic liver disease, alcohol addicts and healthy controls. Features of malnutrition such as nutrient and calorie deficiencies were seen in all liver disease patients regardless of aetiology, but were particularly frequent and severe in those with alcoholic liver disease.15 Malnutrition was also linked to a number of gastrointestinal complications in cirrhotic patients, which may progressively impair their HRQOL.14
Patients with advanced liver disease experienced higher levels of fatigue than healthy controls.16 ,17 Fatigue was particularly well investigated in the realm of PBC where it constituted a major debilitating symptom.18 Comparative research by Jones et al19 using the Fatigue Impact Scale however suggested that its negative effect on patient well-being was similar across different types of liver disease. Wainwright20 interviewed transplant survivors on their experience of living with the disease prior to the intervention. Patients described a range of gastrointestinal symptoms as well as mental impairments, but felt particularly frustrated with the physical limitations brought about by their high levels of fatigue. Respondents recalled gradually losing their independence as their health deteriorated to the point where transplantation became the only life-saving option; they perceived themselves as ‘not living’ during that time. Relatedly, Cordoba and colleagues21 described extensive sleep disturbance in cirrhotic patients, unrelated to any cognitive impairment. The level of sleep problems in advanced liver disease compared with that of chronic renal failure patients21 and was significantly higher than that of healthy controls.22
Surveying a sample of 544 patients with cirrhosis, Marchesini et al23 found that, compared with the general population, liver disease patients perceived most areas of their daily life affected by their illness, particularly the physical domain. Interestingly, respondents reported feeling significantly more affected by relatively minor symptoms such as muscle cramps and pruritus than some of the major, possibly life-threatening complications. Male participants also highlighted their sex life as a great concern in relation to their well-being. Sexual problems such as erectile dysfunction or reduced libido were a common occurrence in male patients with advanced liver disease,24 and in particular among patients with hepatocellular carcinoma.25
The psychological experience of advanced liver disease
Patients with advanced liver disease reported more substantial levels of psychological distress than patients with other types of organ failure11 ,26 and age- and gender-matched controls.27 Indeed, it was suggested that psychological distress was the best predictor of quality of life in patients with liver cirrhosis.28 Impairment in patients’ psychological well-being was linked to the gastrointestinal symptoms associated with advanced liver disease29 and to high levels of fatigue in female PBC patients.30
Depression was particularly prevalent.31 The assessment by Bianchi et al27 of depression in cirrhotic patients found that over that half of their sample were depressed. Moreover, few patients had a known history of depression, thus suggesting that their liver disease was impacting on their mental health. In addition, the researchers found that 69% of participants suffered from some type of sleep disorder which affected their psychological ill health.
Depressed liver disease patients reported significantly more adverse outcomes compared with their non-depressed counterparts such as adaptive coping, physical pain, perceived quality of life and a higher level of pessimism.32 In addition, those with a greater psychological burden were more likely to experience stigma, which in turn can reinforce mental and emotional distress.33
Hepatic encephalopathy was one of the main cognitive complications in patients with advanced liver disease, with neurological symptoms affecting patients’ attention, memory and psychomotor functions. While few patients were found to develop severe cognitive decline, many experienced some cognitive impairment at a subclinical level,34 although reported prevalence rates varied widely.35 Subclinical hepatic encephalopathy was shown to have a profound impact on liver patients’ quality of life and daily functioning, highlighting the value of routinely assessing and treating subclinical levels of cognitive dysfunction in this population.36
Finally, a recent qualitative interview study by Fan and Eiser37 explored the illness experience of 33 patients with hepatocellular cancer. Patients’ adjustment to the illness was found to be a dynamic process influenced by their physical health, the stage of the disease, the patient's illness perceptions and their coping strategies. It appeared that understanding the nature of their illness, especially its causes, prognosis and treatment plans, was particularly important in promoting these patients’ sense of control.
Socio-demographic variations
Both age and gender differences were reported in the HRQOL of individuals with advanced liver disease. Patients with liver disease constituted a relatively young patient population compared with other major diseases.2 ,11 Age was found to be significantly correlated with worsening HRQOL in patients with cirrhosis.38 In the survey research by Marchesini et al,23 the impact of cirrhosis was experienced more acutely among the younger participants. This may be reflective of the relatively more widespread impact of the disease on younger patients’ lives in terms of their employment, family life and adjustment to a diagnosis of a life-limiting illness, compared with older patients who are already beyond the most active phase of their lives. In addition, male participants cited paid employment and sexual function as their main issues in relation to their illness, while female respondents highlighted their home life and social life as primary concerns, suggesting gender differences in the way the illness is experienced.
Discussion
Summary of main findings
Patients with advanced liver disease experience many physical and psychosocial challenges, and often of a greater severity than those reported in most other chronic diseases. Patients are particularly affected by gastrointestinal problems and fatigue, with both linked to higher levels of depression.
Our review found the literature limited in the extent to which it was able to describe the lived patient experience of advanced liver disease. Some physical and psychological support needs can currently only be inferred from more clinically-focused research. While there has been some interest in the psychosocial experience of undergoing liver transplantation, we found only two studies that explicitly explored the everyday, holistic patient experience in advanced liver disease: one study of hepatocellular carcinoma37 and one study exploring the experiences of female patients with PBC.39
We currently lack understanding of these patients’ main concerns and priorities in relation to their illness. We also do not know how patients with advanced liver disease experience their medical treatment and care, and in particular their supportive and palliative care, and to what extent the support provided is perceived to meet their needs and goals. Similarly, there is currently little insight into liver patients’ social, emotional, existential or information needs, or how these change over time. All of these are likely to have a significant bearing on the perceived quality of life and overall illness experience of both the patient and their family, and may be especially pertinent as their illness progresses towards liver transplantation or death.40 This is of particular interest in light of ongoing concerns regarding poorer availability of supportive and palliative care services for patients with non-malignant life-limiting diseases compared with cancer patients.41
Methodological considerations
HRQOL research employing survey-based methods has contributed a great deal to our quantitative understanding of symptom burden and psychological distress, and provides the basis of many recommendations to more effectively target treatment and care for liver disease patients. Moreover, assessing liver patients’ HRQOL does not just serve as an assessment measure in its own right, but has also been found to be a useful predictor of mortality.42 The approach however is not without its critics.43 ,44 Indeed, patients themselves have previously commented that preformulated questionnaires give no opportunity to make personal comment on their subjective illness experience.45 ,46
The literature focused on liver transplantation uses the same or similar quantitative assessment tools as HRQOL research to examine and compare patients’ quality of life before and after transplantation. The qualitative liver transplantation literature identified relates to a very particular set of circumstances: awaiting transplantation. Many patients with advanced liver disease do not qualify for transplantation on account of comorbidities, general frailty, or continued drinking or drug-taking. While much can be learned from the insights from these patients awaiting transplantation, their experiences may not reflect those of the wider patient population with advanced liver disease. Indeed, marked differences between transplant and non-transplant patients have been observed.47
A number of the studies recruited patients with different causes of liver disease. Their results indicate some variation in HRQOL and related factors, suggesting that there may be differences between aetiologies in the way advanced liver disease is experienced. This implies that it may be inappropriate to extrapolate from one type of liver disease to another and to suggest that there exists a universal patient experience in advanced liver disease. While there is much aetiology-specific research into the patient experience with PBC and hepatitis C for example, there is a paucity of similar insights in the realm of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. This consideration is also important given that PBC affects disproportionately more women, pointing towards potential gender differences in the patient experience.
Limitations of this review
This review gives an overview of the knowledge that has been generated by liver disease research over recent years, including insights into some of the types and extent of challenges patients with advanced liver disease face in everyday life. However, while we gained an overview of the extent and nature of the literature, we did not conduct a systematic appraisal of the quality of the individual studies or the effectiveness of any particular intervention. Given the large body of material yielded by the search it was not possible to provide an overview of all reviewed articles. Imposing timescale and language criteria on the search and omitting citation searches mean that potentially relevant articles may have been missed. Also, both literature search and review were undertaken by an independent researcher and as such are subject to potential bias.
Implications for future research
Current research in liver disease is predominantly cross-sectional and quantitative. The typical organ failure trajectory is marked by an erratic progression towards death48 and liver patients’ quality of life deteriorates with increasing disease severity.26 This suggests that the patient experience is likely to differ dynamically along the liver disease pathway. It is important to understand how people experience these fluctuations in their condition to allow changing needs to be recognised and responded to with acceptable and effective care. Qualitative longitudinal research which explores and captures the changing nature of these patients’ health in depth has the potential to provide useful insights in this respect.49 Our review found only one qualitative study using a longitudinal approach to explore patients’ experiences of liver transplantation.50
There is currently only a very limited amount of qualitative research in this area. Of the 121 articles identified, only 13 employed a qualitative research design. Many are situated in the liver transplantation literature and therefore not necessarily representative of the wider patient population with advanced liver disease. Moreover, they commonly employ a retrospective design, asking transplant survivors to recall their experiences prior to transplantation, and are therefore subject to the biases inherent in this approach.
This area would therefore benefit from future research which is generic (ie, not aetiology- or transplantation-focused), prospective, longitudinal and qualitative. Potential differences in the patient experience in relation to demographic factors, such as age and gender, and disease aetiology, also warrant further exploration.
Conclusions
There are many physical and psychosocial challenges for people living with advanced liver disease. However, no research has been identified describing the holistic lived patient experience of advanced liver disease in depth. There is a lack of insight in key areas such as patients’ perceptions of their treatment and care. Existing qualitative research is very limited compared with heart, lung and kidney organ failure illnesses, despite surveys suggesting that the patient experience in advanced liver disease is more challenging and associated with multi-morbidity. Given the erratic and unpredictable trajectory of this disease, it is imperative that a longitudinal, patient-centred approach is taken to illuminate the dynamic illness experience. Thus far, no research has been undertaken which seeks the views of the patient who experiences and manages this condition on a daily basis. Insights have either been provided from a professional perspective or generated from predetermined standard questions. Only by letting patients’ illness stories be told in their own words, and allowing them to speak freely and focus on the aspects of this experience of greatest importance to them, will we be able to confirm whether or not their needs are sufficiently supported through current care structures and pathways. In light of the rapidly increasing number of people predicted to be living and dying with advanced liver disease in coming years, this area deserves urgent attention.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Marilyn Kendall and Libby Sallnow for their constructive input and advice on early drafts of this review. We would also like to thank the referees for their helpful comments.
References
Footnotes
Contributors Both authors devised the research question and formulated the search strategy. BK performed the searches, identified eligible studies, extracted data and drafted the first sections of text. Both authors contributed to the penultimate and final draft. BK is the guarantor.
Funding This work was supported by the Economic and Social Research Council (grant number ES/I019006/1).
Competing interests None.
Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.