Characteristics of study participants (n=321) with metabolomics data, overall and according to tertiles of overall inflammation score
| Variables | All (n=321) | Overall inflammation score | P value* | ||
| 1st tertile (n=107) | 2nd tertile (n=106) | 3rd tertile (n=108) | |||
| Mean age at 5-year-old visit (years) | 5.27 (0.32) | 5.26 (0.37) | 5.25 (0.32) | 5.3 (0.27) | 0.45 |
| Sex | 0.54 | ||||
| Female | 151 (47.04%) | 55 (51.4%) | 48 (45.28%) | 48 (44.44%) | |
| Male | 170 (52.96%) | 52 (48.6%) | 58 (54.72%) | 60 (55.56%) | |
| Race/ethnicity | 0.04 | ||||
| White | 305 (95.02%) | 104 (97.2%) | 96 (90.57%) | 105 (97.22%) | |
| Non-white | 16 (4.98%) | 3 (2.8%) | 10 (9.43%) | 3 (2.78%) | |
| From the delivery visit or from earliest infancy | |||||
| Antibiotic use at delivery† | 112 (37.09%) | 37 (37.00%) | 42 (40.00%) | 33 (34.02%) | 0.68 |
| Delivery mode† | 0.09 | ||||
| Vaginal | 269 (84.33%) | 86 (81.9%) | 96 (90.57%) | 87 (80.56%) | |
| Caesarean | 50 (15.67%) | 19 (18.1%) | 10 (9.43%) | 21 (19.44%) | |
| Birth weight†, g | 3406 (487) | 3397 (403) | 3407 (546) | 3414 (505) | 0.81 |
| Feeding method | 0.32 | ||||
| Breastmilk | 127 (39.56%) | 41 (38.32%) | 37 (34.91%) | 49 (45.37%) | |
| Mixed | 152 (47.35%) | 50 (46.73%) | 58 (54.72%) | 44 (40.74%) | |
| Formula | 42 (13.08%) | 16 (14.95%) | 11 (10.38%) | 15 (13.89%) | |
| Breastfeeding duration (months)† | 9.24 (7.23) | 8.39 (7.01) | 10.12 (7.73) | 9.18 (6.89) | 0.46 |
| Solid food introduction age (months)† | 5.36 (1.61) | 5.25 (1.71) | 5.36 (1.43) | 5.45 (1.69) | 0.34 |
| From the 5-year-old visit | |||||
| Secondhand smoking exposure† | 25 (7.81%) | 3 (2.83%) | 14 (13.21%) | 8 (7.41%) | 0.02 |
| Fruit+vegetable intake (frequency/day) | 5.22 (1.74) | 5.23 (1.80) | 5.12 (1.77) | 5.31 (1.66) | 0.75 |
| Dairy intake (frequency/day) | 3.01 (1.22) | 3.02 (1.21) | 2.94 (1.13) | 3.09 (1.32) | 0.67 |
| Drinking water source | 0.25 | ||||
| Well | 78 (24.30%) | 29 (27.10%) | 26 (24.53%) | 23 (21.30%) | |
| City | 221 (68.85%) | 74 (69.16%) | 74 (69.81%) | 73 (67.59%) | |
| Bottled | 22 (6.85%) | 4 (3.74%) | 6 (5.66%) | 12 (11.11%) | |
| BMI, age and sex-adjusted Z-score | 0.21 (0.96) | 0.13 (0.94) | 0.27 (0.95) | 0.21 (0.99) | 0.55 |
| PAI-1, ng/mL | 9.02 (9.82) | 4.78 (2.5) | 6.8 (3.02) | 15.41 (14.47) | <0.001 |
| TNF-α, pg/mL | 5.47 (1.96) | 3.87 (1.32) | 5.55 (1.12) | 6.98 (1.91) | <0.001 |
| MCP-1, pg/mL | 70.76 (29.81) | 51.45 (15.89) | 66.53 (13.7) | 94.04 (35.86) | <0.001 |
Tertiles of the overall inflammation score were computed among n=330, prior to exclusion due to missing data.
*P values derived from analysis of variance (ANOVA) for continuous variables and from χ2 or Fisher’s exact tests for categorical variables.
†Missing data: secondhand smoking exposure=1, antibiotic rounds since birth=5, antibiotic use at delivery=19, delivery mode=2, birth weight=1, breastfeeding duration=42, solid food introduction age=1.
BMI, body mass index; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; PAI-1, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1; TNF-α, tumour necrosis factor-α.